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DnlYersity ol the State ol New York Bulletin 

Entered as second-class matter, August 2, 1912, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y. 
under the act of August 24, 19 12 

Published fortnightly 
No. 691 ALBANY, N. Y. August i, 1919 

ORAL ENGLISH 

English teaching in America is slowly but surely evolving into a 
science, and that science recognizes the basic importance of the 
adequate teaching of the mother tongue. Such teaching affects the 
English classroom first, but soon must extend to all subjects, and 
must be particularly emphasized in the elementary schools. At 
present, the neglect of discipline in English speech for children in 
the lower grades is startUngly universal.^ Ignorance of the 
science of speech and of a classroom procedure calculated to 
apply it, is general. Hence, teachers are asking, " What is the 
^relation of oral work to the other phases of English teaching? 
How shall I conduct my classes to secure better speech without 
losing ground in written work and literature? What may I do 
personally to meet most effectively this new challenge ? " 

This bulletin is only a primer. It attempts to offer merely some 
sane beginnings of answers to these questions. Teachers should 
realize clearly, however, that we are as yet only on the threshold of 
the problem of speech teaching. It is a part of their business to 
study the science of phonetics and of speaking in a wider sense, 
and to do their share in promoting in America a really adequate 
administrative handling of this tremendously important and curi- 
ously neglected field. 

THE TEACHER'S 'PART 

The personal responsibility of the teacher can not be overesti- 
mated. Her own example outweighs all else. No teacher need 
present an unfortunate one; it is as truly within her power to reform 
herself as her pupils. Two plain rules confront her at the outset: 

1 For actual time given in twelve representative cities, see " Oral English 
in the Primary Grades " by Annie Moore in the Teachers College Record, 
May 1919. 

Xs8r-Je 19-5000(7-667) 



'Vloni»g:raph 



talk less; talk better. She may cultivate her ability to speak with 
skill and beauty by understanding and practising the physiology and 
psychology of voice, and by striving constantly to make her own 
speech a model in quality, rate, inflection, choice of words, structure 
and taste. In all grades, moreover, as Mr Percival Chubb urges, 
" she must be more book free ; she must have a larger store of 
memorized pieces, and be able to do with them what she wishes her 
children to do. Eyes must be on her, not on books. Much memoriz- 
ing, by pupil and teacher alike, must be our first requirement . . . 
and let us always sing from memory." 

Teachers should recognize that the adoption of an oralized type 
of class work is not a release from, but a quickening of, respon- 
sibility. 

SANE BEGINNINGS 

The enthusiasm shown by English teachers for oral English and 
the intelligence with which they attack this work will chiefly deter- 
mine its success. The subject must be approached by the teacher 
with the feeling that instead of being an added burden it is a means 
of economizing time and effort and of producing better results, 
not only in the speech of pupils but also in their writing, in their 
appreciation, and in their ability to listen to what others say. This 
enthusiasm will come with understanding. Teachers who are able 
to handle the subject effectively " would not go back to the old 
way for anything." If a teacher really feels the value of this work, 
her teaching will be doubly effective. 

We shall go a great way in our schools if we insist upon good 
posture and clean-cut enunciation and pronunciation. Good 
posture is not the business of the English department alone, but 
of the school, and should be required by the principal as a matter 
of morale.^ The following extracts from a letter written by the 
Adjutant General's office, Washington, August 28, 19 17, are in 
point concerning the probable cause of the considerable number 
of rejections of candidates for reserve officers at the training 
camps : 

" Perhaps the most glaring faults noted in aspirants to the officers' reserve 
corps and one that might be corrected by proper attention in our high 
schools, preparatory schools and colleges, might be characterized by the 
general word ' slouchiness.' I refer to what might be termed a mental and 



1 The American Posture League, i Madison av., New York, N. Y., furnishes 
excellent charts at 10 cents each, showing correct standing and sitting 
posture. Consult also the Physical Training Syllabus. 



P. «f B. 

'^" 22 1920 



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physical indifference. I have observed at my camp many otherwise excellent 
men who have failed because in our school system sufficient emphasis is 
not placed upon the avoidance of this mental and physical handicap. 

" At military camps throughout the country mental alertness, accuracy 
in thinking and acting, clearness in enunciation, sureness and ease of 
carriage and bearing must be insisted upon, for two reasons, that success 
may be assured as nearly as human effort can guarantee it with the material 
and means at hand, and that priceless human lives may not be criminally 
sacrificed. Only by the possession of the qualities referred to does one 
become a natural leader. 

"A great number of men have failed at camp because of inability to 
articulate clearly. Many men disqualified by this handicap might have 
become officers under their country's flag had they been properly trained 
in school and college. 

" It is hoped therefore that more emphasis will be placed upon the basic 
principles of elocution in the training of our youth .... Great improve- 
ment could be wrought by instructors in our schools and colleges, regardless 
of the subject, insisting that all answers be given in a loud, clear, well- 
rounded voice, which, of course, necessitates the opening of the mouth 
and free movement of the lips. 

" In addition to this physical disability and slouchiness is what might be 
termed the slouchiness of mental attitude. Many men have not been trained 
to appreciate the importance of accuracy in thinking. Too many schools 
are satisfied with an approximate answer to questions. Little or no incentive 
is given increased mental effort to coordinate one's ideas and present them 
clearly and unequivocally . . . . " 

The most effective way to speak to others is face to face. Pupils 
should be taught to take the floor and to face audiences squarely, 
and to recite, for the most part, topically, in a continuity of thought 
and speech. They should be coached, until poise becomes a habit, 
to collect themselves and their audience by pausing before begin- 
ning, and to maintain their positions on the floor until they have 
finished. 

To avoid increasing confusion to pupils who are trying honestly, 
criticism should begin on the subject '' What of the idea? " Indeed 
it is well to recognize that form is a by-product, to be achieved by 
centering effort in the pursuit of the content; we shall secure effec- 
tive speaking by no other principle. To help shy and awkward 
children to forget themselves, the teacher may suggest supplementary 
material. Newspaper clippings, cartoons, pictures, books, black- 
board diagrams, maps, guide books, the lantern or phonograph, 
simple machinery and equipment brought in, may prove useful. 

Confident children may be used as models, and in the grades and 
first high school year, where the dramatic instinct is strong, pan- 
tomime may aid. Miss Emma Breck, in the English Journal for 
January 191 4, suggests the following: 



(i) Simple still life studies, in which the pupil takes a single, expressive 
attitude; (2) individual action, presenting familiar processes, such as making 
bread, pitching hay, etc.; (3) posture and action by groups, using scenes 
from history, literature or current events; (4) charades; (5) pantomime of 
an original plot. 

Elementary speech sounds and enunciation. Much can be done, 
even now, to oveixome the universal carelessness and slovenliness 
in the matter of enunciation and pronunciation. Use is the key 
word of a wise procedure. For ten minutes of the English class 
period, during the opening month of school, drill in vocalizing 
vowels and consonants (p. 18, Academic English Syllabus) will be 
profitable. It should be introduced by a clear statement of its 
purpose, and should be reenforced by application of the principles 
of enunciation to oral reading and speech. A close scrutiny of the 
class speech may determine the strategy of emphasis in the drill. 
It is clearly worth while to teach the positions and use of the 
speech organs only to pupils who can not use them well. 

Here are presented general exercises for the use of the class, and 
a few rudimentary remedial exercises for speech defects, such as 
muffled or nasal voices, stuttering, lisping etc. 

(a) Breathe deeply and repeatedly, from the bottom of the chest, 
without raising the shoulders. Exhale slowly. Hold the breath for 
gradually increasing interv^als. , {h) Inhale slowly and count at a 
deliberate rate, until the breath is exhausted, {c) Inhale quickly 
and count as before. Vary by whistling softly and evenly, or by 
quoting familiar matter while the voice lasts. 

Any sane exercises which secure deep abdominal and costal 
breath'ng and help to habits of breath control may well be practised 
for not more than five minutes. Breathing exercises should be 
linked up with discipline in phrasing and grouping in oral reading. 
The New York City Oral English Syllabus (p. 8-9) offers excellent 
exercises. Further suggestions of exercises in elementary speech 
sounds follow: 

{a) Breathe deeply, and with lips closed hum softly, continuously 
and evenly while breath lasts, taking an easy pitch, {h) While 
breath lasts, hum in gentle, repeated strokes, giving the impetus with 
the diaphragm. Do not gasp more breath between strokes, {c) 
Breathe deeply and whisper nun-nun-mm-nun. (d) On an easy 
pitch, vocaHze the same sound rapidly and softly, with a clear, 
resonant tone, avoiding nasal quaUty. (e) Breathe deeply; whisper 
me-me-me-me. (/) Vocalize softly, in rapid, repeated strokes. Do 
not run syllables together. Avoid nasality, {g) Similarly, whisper 



and then vocalize ha-ha-ha, throwing the voice well forward and 
opening the mouth widely, (h) Whisper and then vocalize a series 
of combinations of the aspirate with various open sounds : hoo, haw, 
hah, heh, hee. (i) Whisper and then vocalize combinations of hah 
with these syllables. (;) Combine hah with open sounds without the 
aspirate: hah-oo, had-aw, etc. {k) Combine consonants with the 
open sounds, hoo, bazv, hch, hah, hee, etc. (/) Drill on consonant 
endings by rapid, clean-cut pronunciation of word-lists, exercising 
the desired articulation: hlood. Hood, mud; luck, duck, struck etc. 
{m) Drill on old-fashioned tongue twisters and difficult speech com- 
binations, (w) Practise telephone conversations placing pupils in 
opposite corners of the room and securing low-voiced, exceedingly 
distinct speech, (o) Practice introductions before the class, taking 
care that every word, part'cularly the names, shall be distinctly 
heard. Try to vary the trite formulas to suit imagined conditions 
of introduction. 

Individual defects. What shall we do with speech defects, such 
as stuttering, lisping, nasality etc.? Until we get speciaUsts in 
speech, not much; it is easily possible to do more harm than good; 
but we can do something. By a study of a few well-selected books, 
such as those in the list appended, the teacher may acquire a rudi- 
mentary knowledge of the machinery of speech and the way it func- 
tions in forming the elementary speech sounds. A little practice 
will enable her to determine the positions of her own speech organs 
by feeling and by observation before the mirror. By all means, if 
possible, she should go further and take special vv^ork in phonetics 
and speaking under competent teachers, but even with a study of 
her own she may be able to help most of the cases which come to 
her. Of course, where a specialist is available, she should place the 
pupil who needs help in his hands. 

Lacking such help, three courses are open to her. She may ignore 
the pupil's need, and leave the child doomed to isolation and stunted 
growth ; she may help him through carefully directed imitation ; or 
she may work improvement through correct understanding and 
manipulation of the organs of speech. A combination of the last 
two methods will often prove surprisingly effective. 

The commonest conspicuous peculiarities of speech are, too high 
or too low pitch, weak or whispering voices, muffled or closed voices, 
lisping, stuttering, nasality and dialect. 

In all cases the first step in successful treatment is to ascertain 
whether the vocal and articular organs are normal. The teacher may 



6 

assure herself by observation that teeth, hard and soft palate and 
tongue are normal. If they are not she should do vv^hat she can to 
bring the child to a specialist. 

In all work with voices the formula of '' little and often " is 
imperative. Begin all exercises quietly, without a jerk, keep always 
well within reserve power and quit before fatigued. Two minutes 
on an exercise and five or ten on a series are enough, frequently 
repeated. Always quit if rawness or strain appears and never 
exercise with a raw or sore condition present. 

Finally, do not expect instant results. Persevere patiently. Says 
Doctor Muckey, *' The time necessary for full development of 
muscular tissues under favorable conditions is approximately three 
years. When the vocal muscles have been severely injured or 
weakened by interference, a longer time is needed." 

Pitch. This varies, of course, with every voice, but many school 
children speak, habitually, higher or lower than their natural pitch. 
To determine the normal pitch, that is, the tone which should pre- 
dominate in speech, discover the whole range of voice. The middle 
tone between the extremes, or a slight variation from it, is the 
natural pitch. 

Most women's and girls' voices are pitched too high. The shrill- 
ness of American tone is notorious. Simply calling attention, when- 
ever necessary, to unnatural shrillness may help and in some cases 
correct. Care should be taken, however, not to heighten nervous- 
ness by publicly calling attention to a shrill, overstrained quality in 
a shy, highly strung pupil. The teacher must devise tactful ways — 
probably best in individual conference. 

Quietude tends to lower vocal pitch. Try to emphasize to the 
pupil the value of repose and rest and the blessing of a serene voice. 
The best emphasis is consistent example. Nervousness and 
irritability in the voice and manner of a teacher are quickly com- 
municated to the pupils. Induce quietude by the use of reading 
material suited in mood, such as Tennyson's Crossing the Bar, 
Gray's Elegy, Henley's Margaritae Sorori and similar material. 

Weak voices. Weak voices are caused generally by one or more 
of three things : general physical debility, sheer nervousness or stage 
f r'ght, and weak muscles about the larynx. In all cases be sure that 
the pupil aims his voice at his audience. 

Cases of general debility are beyond the English teacher's cure; 
She may, however, aid by breathing exercises and by calling par- 
ticular attention of the school nurse, physical trainer, principal and 
parents to the condition. 



For shyness and stage fright the teacher may draw out the pupil 
gradually through much systematic practice in reading, memorized 
recitation, speaking with aids (pictures, maps, blackboard, books or 
other materials^), beginning with the pupil's hobbies and absolutely 
familiar material. In many cases shyness and poor correlation are 
symptoms and results of profound physical and psychological 
changes in a child's life and should be dealt with gently, patiently 
and persistently. 

Frequently shyness tends to contract the muscles about the mouth 
In such cases the teacher may encourage the pupil to open his mouth 
fully, practising ah words. (See Closed voices, page 8) 

Practice in fixing thought sequence by means of thorough prepa- 
ration and careful outlines may help nervous pupils. Urge upon 
pupils the point of view that the first plunge is the worst, and that 
stage fright rapidly decreases with practice; that the way to learn 
to speak, as to learn to swim, is to plunge in. 

Sometimes, although rarely, the cause of weak voices is weak 
muscles around the larynx. If the expedients suggested above fail 
to secure reasonable volume, the teacher may proceed on the assump- 
tion that the difficulty is muscular. Since it is impossible to 
strengthen the vocal cords, attention must be centered upon building 
up the muscles. 

For weak muscles about the larynx, the remedy lies in very quiet 
manipulatory exercises, always without strain. In no case and at 
no stage should loud vocalization be indulged by a person with a 
weak voice. In all exercises the pupil should see that he begins 
gently, absolutely on pitch, with no sliding up to the tone, and 
avoiding nasal quality. Exercises: (i) Sustained, soft, mellow 
hum, on natural pitch of the voice. (2) Shorten to diaphragmatic 
strokes, with mouth closed: hm-hm-hm. (3) Combine throat 
murmur, m-m, with open sounds, beginning with ee, mce-mee-mee 
etc. Use similarly eh, ah, ay, aw, 00 with m. (4) Combine any- 
consonant with any vowel. Be careful that articulating organs are 
in proper position and that they do their work cleanly, in each case. 

Whispering voices. In addition to the exercises and suggestions 
under Weak voices, above, with one breath, in short, sharp strokes 
and softly, repeat hm-hm-hm-hm. 

Whispering voices result from too much breath escaping between 
the vocal cords while tone is being produced. Intelligent effort to 
control and regulate the supply of breath, either by the exercise 
suggested or similar ones, or by imitation, may help. Occasionally 

1 See page 3. 



8 

there is a lesion in the vocal cords. In such cases a specialist should 
be consulted. 

Closed or mufHed voices, i Exercise frequently by exaggerated 
enunciation or by grimaces to induce muscular dexterity in tongue, 
jaws and lips. 

2 Ease and loosen muscles by softly humming m-m-m with lips 
closed, in short, quick strokes. This can not be practised too much 
for increasing general pleasantness of tone. Practice periods, how- 
ever, should be short (not exceeding three minutes) and frequent. 

3 Be sure, in speaking, that the mouth is open so as to allow free 
escape to sound. Practise opening mouth widely in reading, speak- 
ing or singing. Practise on ah words — father, martyr, cardinal 
etc. 

4 To get sound forward, out of the throat, practise ha-ha-haaa-ah, 
beginning and ending with clear h sound, repeating as often as pos- 
sible with the same breath. 

Lisping. Lisping is ordinarily the result of an inability to form 
s sounds correctly, as by giving them the sounds of th. It is a 
defect due to imperfect adjustment of the organs of speech, and 
its cure may be attempted by securing the proper formation of 
these sounds. First find out whether the tongue and teeth are 
normal. 

Th is made by touching the tip of the tongue to both the upper 
and the lower teeth. Then explosively remove it, allowing the 
breath to escape between the teeth above the tip of the tongue. 
Teach the right position as described. Practise by pronouncing 
thin, smithy, death, ninth, and similar th words. 

6^ is a soft hiss made by placing the tongue against the roof of 
the mouth over the front teeth and blowing out softly through the 
hollow tip of the tongue, which forms a channel. 

Of the lisped s. Scripture, '* Elements of Experimental Phonetics," 
Pa§"e 395. says: "The most frequent fault arises from touching 
the point or dorsum of the tongue to the palate whereby the sides of 
the tongue leave the teeth and the air finds issue at one or both sides 
instead of through the medio-lingual cavity." 

To change a lisped ^ into a normal one direct the tongue t!p down 
and practise the sound; use a wire or a small hollow tube to hold 
the tip from the teeth. Practise pronunciation of words in s; sis, 
sister, cisterian, system, sauce, sense etc. 

Tongue twisters and drill on readings furnishing a frequency of 
5 and th words may yield results in cases of lisping. 



Stuttering Stuttering is more complex and sometimes arises 
Irom lack of coordination of the brain centers. (For scientific 
treatment, see book list appended.) Cases should be handled with 
the utmost delicacy. Consistent and patient efforts, however, may 
be made as follows : > , ay 

1 Exercises in formation of fundamental speech sounds 

2 Breathmg exercises, especially long, quiet breathing. 

3 Careful preparation of materials, including visualization of 
words to be used or, in case of sudden demand, deliberate organiza- 
tion of thought and dict:on before speaking. In other words, the 
stutterer should know exactly what he wants to say and how he 
wants to say it before launching into a sentence. Practise daily 
upon brief prepared material. 

4 Speak very slowly, not drawling words but taking time to cor- 
relate forces between words, and more time to gather forces 
between phrases and sentences. Never start until a thought has 
been completely expressed mentally. 

5 As work progresses, encourage volume of voice. 

6 In private conference, let teacher and pupil read slowly in 
unison, allow.ng the pupil to go on alone for a few sentences 

7 Give the pupil something to do with his hands while he talks. 
Nasality. Nasality is caused by nasal obstructions or improper 

use of the soft palate. It is not " talking through the nose,'' as is 
commonly said, but failure to do so. If m, n, and ng are not prop- 
erly made through the nose, nasality results. 

1 See that abnormal obstructions are cleared from the nose — 
cold, adenoids, spurs etc. Develop resonance of voice. 

2 Practise exercises for proper handling of palate. Exercises- 
(«) m - ah, m - ah; ni - ee; m ~ oh etc. Consciously strive to 
eLmmate nasal quality, {h) Practise clear, mellow sounding of 
open vowels, {c) In nasal words, that is, where n follows an open 
vowel, {hand, pant, pan, banana, blanch, branch etc.) practise care- 
fully, separating the pronunciation of the vowel from the pronuncia- 
tion of the n; in other words, pronounce the vowel open and com- 
plete, free from any nasal twang, stop the sound completely, add n 
(^)Braden a's even to the point of affectation, hah-nd, bah-nd 
etc. ;^ this puts an aspirate between the open vowel and the nasal h 

Dialects. English teachers, especially in communities with large 
foreign elements, frequently are confronted with strong dialectic 
sounds m the speech of pupils. Dialectic difficulties vary widely in 
cause and in cure. In general, for Russian, German' and other 



10 

northern dialects, tip-tongue exercises will help. For Latin dia- 
lects, mid or base tongue exercises should be practised. 

To deal with dialectic difficulties the teacher must know the 
positions of the speech organs in the formations of the elements of 
language — vowels and consonants. It is necessary, also, to help 
the pupil to correct intonation, inflection, emphasis and cadence. 

Clear diagrams illustrating the position of the articulating organs 
in every element of speech may be found in Krapp, " Pronuncia- 
tion of Standard English in America " ; Ripman, " Sounds of 
American Speech " ; Lewis, "American Speech " ; Smith, '* Oral 
English for Secondary Schools " ; Scripture, *' Elements of Experi- 
mental Phonetics " ; Aiken, '* The Voice." The last named contains 
excellent detailed descriptions (pages 35-88) and a helpful pro- 
nunciation chart (pages 131-33 and back cover of the book). 

In a given case of dialect, the teacher or other friend of the pupil 
should note and write down a list of the words the pupil mispro- 
nounces, trying to locate the sounds which cause difficulty. Then 
teach the child how to form the sounds correctly and drill upon 
words offering similar problems, securing at the same time proper 
intonation, inflection etc. Frederick iMartin, director of speech 
improvement in the New York City schools, is the author of a 
supplement to the Syllabus in English called " Foreign Accent " 
published in 191 7 which may prove a help to teachers struggling 
with this problem. 

APPROACHES TO ORAL COMPOSITION 
The most valuable approach to oral composition is through oral 
reading in the junior high school years. Reading, linked up with 
literature and talk, forms the backbone of training in good speech. 
Exercises in reading contemporary poetry and narratives of a 
patriotic nature as well as contemporary prose of a business or 
industrial character in current magazines and papers may be used 
with good results. 

Edward Webster, in the January 191 8 issue of the New England 
Leaflet, presents some very valuable suggestions as to the place of 
oral reading, which, he says, is " a definite, natural approach to the 
teaching of oral composition. For the self-conscious youth, it has 
less terror than the formal oral composition. . . . iHe may have 
to stand in front of the class, but he can depend upon his book and 
he has the consolation of knowing that he is not responsible for 
what he is reading. To the nervous, self-centered child this means 
much.'* 



11 



My own experience," goes on Mr Webster, ''has taught me 
that the passages read should be similar in form and in spirit to the 
assignment m oral composition which is to follow. For instance 
It by Friday I wish a series of oral compositions dealing w^th excit- 
ing moments at a fire, I have various pupils prepare oral readings 
from such writers as Lytton, Dickens, Lafcadio Hearn and Jacob 
Kus, all of whom have written vividly of fires. 

'' Oral reading should be prepared at home. The teacher should 
give preliminary questions and directions to the pupil which should 
stimulate interest in the subject matter of the passage and in the 
practice readings. . . . What kind of person is speaking? In 
what mood? Does his mood change? What tone would you use in 
rendering each of these moods? What emotion is expressed by 
each of the sentences followed by a question mark? Practise the 
reading orally to reveal this kind of emotion." 

Here are some very valuable hints on the relation of oral reading 
to the teaching of oral composition. Teachers will find a masterly 
treatment of the same theme in Hiram Corson's "A'ms of Literary 
Study," and " The Voice and Literary Study." 

Another basis to sound work is memorization. The amount of 
memorization must be determined by many factors, but in general 
It should be greatly increased and stressed. A minimum require- 
ment of from loo to 150 lines a year is certainly not too much The 
surest stimulus to active and pleasurable memorization bv pupils is 
a rich fund and artistic rendition of memorized treasures on the 
teacher's part, along with frequent clearing houses of quotation in 
class, literary societies and assemblies. Festivals and dramatics may 
be used. 

_ As to the methods of memorizing, a helpful summary is contained 
m The Economy and Training of Memory," by Henry J Watt 
particularly chapter 7. The following quotation from the report of 
the joint committee on the reorganization of English in the secondary 
schools (Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.) su-o-ests 
a practical method : '''^ 

'' The method of memorizing is important. If pupils will 
read aloud the passages selected, once or twice a day, thoughtfully' 
for a couple of weeks, they will find that they have unconsciously 
mastered them. Passages so memorized will be remembered much 
longer than those learned in shorter sections day by day. Several 
repetitions of such passages at gradually lengthening intervals will 



12 

be necessary to insure their permanent retention. Memorizing 
should follow, not precede, a clear perception of the progress of the 
thought." 

To quote again from Mr Webster: "To have the greatest prac- 
tical value in the teaching of oral composition, every declamation 
should prepare the way for a definite exercise which will bring into 
play the pupil's ov/n expression of a similar experience." 

Speaking. Drill in speaking will be of two general sorts, informal 
discussion, in which the proprieties of conversation are developed, 
and formal speeches, in which the rules of the platform are 
practised. 

Spontaneous and informal work should be the preponderant type. 
This calls for the highest skill on the teacher's part, if she is to 
avoid aimless and undisciplined " talk fests." In the drawing out 
of slow and bashful pupils, in keeping her group to the point and 
challenging them to effective thinking and speech, in the preserva- 
tion of an atmosphere of good humor and good manners, all with 
the least possible interference, her skill will be tried, but it is in 
such discussions that the best speaking exercise is secured to the 
children. 

Much may be done to train our pupils in the fine art of con- 
versation. The development of low-pitched, widely inflected, 
musical voices and clean-cut enunciation is a great step, but beyond 
lies a subtler technic of the matter. The ordinary conversation 
begins and ends with safe, shallow and profitless inanities — 
nothing given, nothing received. A series of class group con- 
versations, which begin with an introduction of the principals to 
one another and require them within a dozen sentences to " launch 
out into the deep," to discover where the interests and experiences 
or needs of the others lie and to effect an exchange of spiritual or 
intellectual commodities mutually worth while, would develop a 
method and an attitude on the part of the pupils hkely to prove 
of abiding and increasing value. Topics might be announced 
beforehand, so that any member might inform himself and formu- 
late his ideas, and the class divided into conversational groups, by 
the teacher's appointment or their own choice. It would be well, 
as suggested, to have practice in social introductions; there is no 
commoner exhibition of awkwardness or source of embarrassment 
than in such presentations. Let the introducer, Mr W, introduce 
Mr Y to Messrs V and X, using fictitious and unfamiliar names. 
The critic should object if Mr W fails to pronounce each name 
very clearly and inescapably, and the principals should seek to vary 



13 

the usual trite formula of acknowledgment. After half a dozen 
sentences, at intervals in the course of the conversation, each 
participant should use the names of the others, naturally and easily, 
so paying them the subtle and winning compliment of apprehending 
their identities accurately. The habit of fixing faces and names, 
in which most of us fail miserably, is a great social and business 
asset which may be systematically cultivated. The class may be 
asked to observe their experiences of this sort outside of the 
schoolroom and put these exercises to practical and immediate use. 
A very useful oral English period may be secured on the topic 
"An interesting conversation in which I have participated recently," 
in which reports on both content and technic are made. A definite 
assignment requiring the pupils to interview someone outside of 
school and report results will yield big dividends. 

Along with this effort to get something worth while in con- 
versation, but subordinated to it, should go a constant campaign 
against slang and bad usage, and systematic measures to increase 
one's vocabulary (see Brewer, Oral English, pages 58-70). Pupils 
should be required to list and use words new to them, or the 
teacher may give lists of words not in poverty-stricken vocabularies, 
and have them used in sentences in class, or may devise games 
and exercises in paraphrasing. No better method of developing 
individual and fresh expression may be found than by a pupil's 
taking a sentence and reforming it in various and original ways.^ 
Paraphrase verse or supply synonyms. 

Mr Webster makes a valuable suggestion in point here. " From 
my own experience, I feel it is wise to begin a lesson in oral 
composition by having some pupil set a standard. I call upon a 
spirited lad who, I am reasonably sure, will do a forceful piece of 
work. He sets the pace, and somehow his confidence and his 
success seem to give confidence and success to the diffident. So 
convinced am I of the importance of setting a high standard at the 
beginning of the year that I rarely call upon any student for a 
sustained effort until I have discovered, through class discussion, 
who are likely to be leaders in the oral work." 

Miscellaneous exercises helpful in many schools follow : 

I Salesmanship. Let rival salesmen present the merits of their 
wares. Whenever feasible the article to be sold should be pre- 
sented to the class, and questions should be asked by various pupils 
and answered by the salesman. 

^ See biographical sketch of Robert Bums, in Cambridge edition of 
Burns's poems, for methods of his boyhood teacher. 



14 

2 Dictation of letters. The modern business letter is primarily 
an oral composition addressed to the eye, not to the ear. Frequent 
exercises in dictating letters may be given very profitably. With 
proper motivation these exercises will furnish training in idiomatic 
grouping of words, and in correct formulation of sentences and 
paragraphs. An actual business letter may be read to the class 
by one pupil and then another pupil may be required to dictate a 
reply to be taken down by the entire class. 

3 Variation of 2. Define a situation in which a position of a 
certain type offering certain advantages and paying a stipulated 
salary, is open to a man possessing certain qualifications, 
(a) Appoint pupils to apply by letter (discuss what qualities are 
desirable in a letter of application), (b) Stage the personal inter- 
views. Characters may be the employer, the office boy or stenog- 
rapher, and the various applicants. Use the teacher's desk as scene. 

4 Introductions (a) of one or more persons to one another or to 
a group; (b) of a speaker to his audience. Examples: introduce 
an after-dinner speaker to a political or literary club; make the 
speech. Introduce a distinguished Frenchman to the Daughters of 
the American Revolution ; make the speech. Introduce an alumnus 
or other speaker to the high school assembly ; make the speech. 

5 Announcements. From the assembly platform, or section 
rooms, pupils should be used to make administrative announcements 
whenever possible. Some principals develop a staff of " heralds." 
One New York school has a two-minute resume of the world's 
news by a pupil in daily assembly. 

6 Discussion of professions and life work. Present the demands 
for, preparation for and possibilities of trades and professions. 

7 Current events. This may be done, as Miss Adah Grandy 
suggests, through " oral newspapers." Divide assignments among 
" departments " or pupil groups, giving one charge of domestic and 
community news, another of foreign news, another cartoons, another 
editorials, sports etc. An oral school newspaper, dividing the school 
life similarly, is a pleasant variation. 

8 Discussions of famous men and women. Let pupils impersonate 
famous characters and discuss their works or lives : Anna Howard 
Shaw, Maiy Antin, Herbert Hoover etc. Supplementary readings 
in biography will enrich results. 

9 Club work : debates, book reviews, lectures etc. In connection 
with after-dinner talks, Mr Webster furnishes the following stimu- 
lating and suggestive experience: 



15 

" I decided at the beginning of last year to teach the principles 
of after-dinner speaking in the Forum, our junior-senior hterary 
club for boys. The study divided itself naturally into analytical 
work based on a careful study of models, and creative work. Dur- 
ing the fall and winter months the boys met regularly in the library 
to analyze famous after-dinner speeches by Simeon Ford, Hamilton 
Wright Mabie, Chauncey Depew, Mark Twain, Horace 'Porter and 
Joseph H. Choate. At the first meeting the chairman analyzed 
Mark Twain's " New England Weather." The humor and literary 
fin"sh of that speech made the opening program an interesting and 
fruitful source of deduction. The chairman was able to bring before 
the club the important principles lying back of every good after- 
dinner speech. During the next month, speechies were outlined and 
analyzed. Near the end of the first semester entire speeches were 
memorized and presented to the club. 

" The second half was the test of the practicability of the work. 
I took pains to select a boy exceptionally gifted in appreciation of 
good literature, who is a good speaker and a leader in the club. 
I told him to saturate himself in the work of Mark Twain. This 
he did. On the night that he delivered his toast Springfield, a City 
of Homes, he literally brought down the house. He had done just 
what I wanted ; he had set a standard. The talk that night was so 
enthusiastic that I knew a successful future for the course was 
assured. All tried to surpass the standard set and the result was 
that by June every one of the boys had delivered at least one 
creditable speech." 

Mr Webster's course closed with a " real, live banquet at a real 
live hotel " with speeches " worthy of college men." 

lo Travelogs. Assign any local industry worth careful study 
for a visit. For example, a team may report on a visit to a news- 
paper office, one member describing the news-gathering process, 
another the advertising, another the composing room, another the 
printing and circulation. A trip to the heating plant of the school 
building, or to the physics laboratory, if well equipped, may be very 
profitable. Some teams have included photographs of their excur- 
sion, showing members of the group in the course of the jaunt. 
Teams may vary in size according to the caliber of the subject. If 
your community has only one or two notable spots, use them and 
exchange the written account which should usually conclude such 
a project with some other community, in this country or abroad. 

On the side of formal speaking, exhaustive textbooks are avail- 
able. A few hints may be useful. 



16 

1 A broad foundation of informal discussion should precede the 
beginning of formal work. The teacher and class should try to 
draw out bashful or supersensitive pupils naturally in discussion. 

2 G.ve every pupil frequent opportunity to talk. If classes are 
large, limit time severely. It is well to explain the whole purpose 
of such an exercise that it may be a project shared by the class 
rather than an onerous, superimposed task. 

3 To further this " cooperative " spirit, the teacher should study 
to keep herself, ordinarily, in the background. At times every class 
should have a chairman, secretary and critic of its own. A good 
plan is to have new ones selected daily or at frequent intervals, at 
the beginning of a period, voting by hands. The teacher should 
not ordinarily appoint officers, but should insist on a fair rotation 
in office. The secretary's report offers a good review of the essen- 
tial points of the preceding class hour. 

4 The basic principles and practices of parliamentary usage 
should be one of the minimum requirements of the oral English 
work. It is well to have each class draw up a constitution and 
proceed regularly. 

5 No one but a speech defective should be excused from speaking 
in his turn. Shy pupils may be helped by the teacher to aids and 
supplementary material — books, pictures, maps, blackboard etc. 
As the work progresses, voluntary and, later, required impromptus 
should be used. 

6 Assure adequate preparation. In the beginning, the teacher 
may confer with speakers, to assist in organizing and rehearsing the 
speeches. Each speaker should be required to hand an outl'ne of 
his task to the teacher at the beginning of the class period. He may 
himself be allowed to have brief topic headings in his hand. Teachers 
should in general discourage committing speeches to memory; 
adherence to the thought is vital and servile dependence upon the 
letter undermines this. It may be wise to have carefully memorized 
opening and closing sentences. 

7 The most strategic elements of a passable speech are probably 
three: inviting opening sentence, convincing and conclusive closing 
sentence, and an idea. There should be consistent drill upon proper 
selection and arrangement of material. 

The New York State Business English Syllabus suggests that the 

, specific aims of oral class exercises are briefly (a) the elimination 

of mannerisms, careless enunciation and incorrect pronunciation, 

' drawling of words, initial iufy, well, now, transitional ah — ah, the 

I rising inflection at the end of declarative statements, overworking 



17 

certain words, grammatical errors and provincialisms and (b) the 
development of precision in the choice of words, confident manner 
and tone, good organization of material, ability to convey informa- 
tion briefly and clearly, ability to impel to action. 

8 Criticism at first should be mild, but the attitude of the crit'.c, 
although unmistakably sympathetic, should be just. The develop- 
ment of a wholesome attitude toward criticism, on the part of the 
pupil, is one of the greatest moral results of the oral English 
emphasis.^ Not mere talk, but effective speech, is the end. Every 
recitation, whether in the so-called oral English period or not, must 
help by giving practice in the principles of such speech. 

9 The critical sense of the class should be able to distinguish 
the propriety of three types of recitations: single word replies for 
which the speaker should sit (these should be exceptional) ; brief 
recitations of one or two sentences for which he should rise beside 
his seat; topical recitations or formal talks of considerable length, 
for which he should go to the center front of the room. The class 
should demand a reasonable observance of these types as a matter 
of courtesy, convenience and effective cooperation. Wherever pos- 
sible, the class should be seated in a circle or around a table. 

10 Criticism of technic or mechanics should generally be clearly 
subordinated to crit'cism of the content and ordering of a talk. 
Good carpenter work is highly desirable; brains are indispensable. 
Encourage the class to challenge specious and shallow opinions and 
uninformed or unsupported statements ; to face a definition of issues 
and to pounce ruthlessly upon ramblings from the point. 

11 The first question to be asked in judging a speech is '' Is the 
idea worth while?" The oral English period offers an incom- 
parable opportunity for getting into quick and quickening touch 
with contemporar}^ world events and tendencies. There is no such 

1 The following is a further extract from a letter from the Adjutant 
General's office explaining why many candidates for appointment as 
officers failed. It is quoted here because its application is general : 

" A last important element that seems to me to be lacking in the moral 
and mental make-mp of some of our students here, is the characteristic of 
grit. Not that they would prove cowardly in battle, necessarily, but some 
have exhibited a tendency to throw up the sponge upon the administration 
of severe rebuke or criticism. Their ' feelings have been hurt ' and they 
resign. They have never been taught the true spirit of subordination. They 
are not ready for the rough edges of life. The true training school should 
endeavor to keep one's eyes fixed upon the goal rather than upon the rough- 
ness of the path, to realize that one unable to rise above the hard knocks 
of discipline can not hope to face with equanimity the tremendous respon- 
sibilities of the officer under modern conditions of warfare. This ideal of 
grit belongs in the schoolroom as well as upon the campus." 



18 

period elsewhere In the school program for the development of 
sane, informed, intelligent Americanism. The boys and girls now 
in our high schools are charged with the responsibility of inter- 
nationalism on a scale of which their fathers, as a generation, never 
dreamed. Teachers of vision should seize every opportunity to 
enlarge the pupil's information and his power to handle it, to the 
making of a fairer world through world processes. 

THE RELATION OF ORAL TO WRITTEN COMPOSITION 

Many teachers hail oral work as a release from the minute and 
burdensome labor of the cnticism of written themes, with little 
definite technic for relating the two effectively. Oral composition is 
not a substitute for written work ; it should be generally a scientific 
and economical approach to it. A skilled procedure would be some- 
thing as follows, breaking up into some eight distinct steps : 

1 Teacher and class should select theme topics. Usually, to 
secure a relatively common task, subject to judgment on one basis 
these should be limited in number; two or possibly three in a large 
class may be allowed for variety. The topics should be very care- 
fully phrased. 

2 Literary models should be used frequently, as suggested by 
Mr Webster, to kindle emulation, but mere copying should be 
discouraged. 

3 Under these topics, teacher or a pupil acting as secretary, should 
be gathered any ideas the class is able to contribute, in a rapid-fire 
assembling of the *' raw material." 

4 The class should be given a short time — perhaps ten minutes — 
to select, supplement and order the material for presentation as oral 
themes. 

5 The second half of the period should be used for the oral 
presentation of themes, with class criticism of form and content. 
Thus are anticipated numberless errors which otherwise are rein- 
forced by writing. 

6 At home, or the following class period, the themes thus planned 
and criticized should be written. 

7 Half a dozen of them should be placed upon the board for criti- 
cism and correction. 

8 The teacher should review the themes and criticize them in 
class or conference.^ 

1 Two very helpful books in this connection are W. R. Brown's " How the 
French Boy Learns to Write" (Harvard Press) and J. P. Hartog's "The 
Writing of English" (Oxford Press, 1908), 



19 

Oral work may help in improving the details of writing. Through 
it, two important senses are brought to bear upon speUing — the 
kinesthetic and the auditory. Much of our bad spelling is a direct 
result of vicious enunciation ; the pupil has never seen, heard or 
pronounced the word correctly. Two tilings we may secure through 
oral means which will aid spelling: emphasis upon all enunciation, 
particularly correct pronunciation of words to be spelled, and ade- 
quate assurance that pupils understand the meanings of words, and 
the sections which establish and modify their meanings. 

Punctuation, too, will be improved by careful teaching of speech. 
Punctuation is to the eye what pauses and inflections are to the ear. 
Teach children to punctuate with their voices, and they will have 
gone a long way toward accurate written punctuation. Carry on 
the oral and written punctuation with the same material, at the same 
time. For instance, use devices hke the following: Present 
unpunctuated matter, mimeographed or upon the board. Have the 
material read, at first silently by all until the sense is clear; then 
orally by a pupil while another inserts punctuation according to 
the pauses and inflections of the reader's voice. Similarly, let a 
pupil read his own written work, and the remainder of the class 
determine the punctuation as indicated by the reading. 

The heart of the problem of grammar lies in oral use. The ear 
must he trained to the correct form. Drill on the correct form, 
through language games, or quotations, establishing and reinforcing 
the right use, must be provided. Some one has suggested that 
children who commit to memory Robert Louis Stevenson's '* Garden 
of Verses," are partly fortified in usage. " When I was sick and 
lay in bed " etc. and " I saw the next door garden lie " etc. Dem- 
ing's "Language Games for the Grades" (Beckly-Cardy Co., 
Chicago), Mahoney's "Standards in English" (World Book Co.) 
or Sheridan's " Speaking and Writing English " (Benj. F. Sanborn 
Co.), all provide material for useful language games. 

This training in correct usage will need to be largely individual. 
Teacher and class should list each pupil's mistakes; the correct 
forms should be used in five or ten sentences of oral drill, frequently 
at first, until the teacher has assured herself that right usage is a 
matter not of rule but of habit. 

For practical purposes, all the words in a sentence fall into three 
classes: structural words (subject, predicate and object) ; modify- 
ing, decorative or explanatory words ; connectives and particles. As 
a device helpful in grammar and in oral reading, pupils should 



2Q 

make topographical maps of sentences, placing the words on differ- 
ent levels, according to their importance. 

As aids in paragraph or composition planning the following 
devices may prove useful: (a) Have a piece of written work 
read aloud, requiring the class to guess the paragraph divisions or 
to jot down rough outlines of the thought, as a test of organization. 
(b) Require skeleton outlines of oral or written themes before the 
themes are detailed. Similarly, require outlines of assembly 
addresses, sermons, public addresses etc. (c) Read aloud a list of 
items, jumbled at random, perhaps concerning two entirely different 
topics, and require class to separate the topics and order the items. 
(d) Give pupils topic sentences on slips of paper. Let each spend 
ten minutes organizing a paragraph or short speech, with special 
attention to transition words, topical headings or sentences which 
may be used as brief notes. Let the speeches be made from such 
plans, (e) Assign problems in letter writing, as suggested on 
page 13 of the English Syllabus, requiring pupils to dictate. Let 
the class check up mistakes, bad arrangement and awkward 
handling. 

Original short stories, told by groups, form an entertaining and 
extremely valuable exercise in oral work, which carries over into 
written composition. Miss Adah Grandy, of Minneapolis, Minn., 
and others have secured very notable results by the following 
procedure : 

1 The teacher writes upon the board the formula of a good yarn, 
something like this : 

a Introduction 

Time, place, leading characters, lesser characters 
b Moving force 
c Opposing force 
d Turning point 
e End 

A simpler outline is found in Mrs Emogene Simons's " First Year 
English for High Schools," page 141 : A tries to do something, 
B opposes or aids, A succeeds or fails. A or B may mean either a 
single character or a whole group. 

2 The class applies this outline to any familiar story until the 
significance of the terms is clear. 

3 The class then builds the elements of a composite story by 
having various mem.bers suggest conditions, leading characters, 
moving force, etc. Repeat this until a number of promising outlines 



21 

have been evolved, and the class has grasped and contributed to the 
scheme. 

4 Divide the class into groups, each with a chairman; let the 
groups meet in various corners of the room or elsewhere and work 
up their original stories. They should rehearse before presenting 
their stories to the class. 

5 Let each group present its story. A story may be merely told 
by a sequence of narrators, or it may be partly or entirely drama- 
tized. A successful plan is to have the team divided into the author 
(who may be represented by a sequence of pupils), the chief charac- 
ters and the minors. The author launches the yarn and injects any 
necessary transitional material ; he may condense much action or 
time into a few sweeping sentences to facilitate the movement of 
the story. The author should be fluent or well prepared. The 
climax of the story should be in dialog or action by the chief charac- 
ters ; minors may be used to speak for the author, describe the 
situation or the prmcipals, as seems effective. 

6 If the results justify, present the best stories before wider audi- 
ences. Finally, have them written, each member of each group 
writing the story evolved by his team. The best of them should be 
published. 

For this device there need be no lack of source material. Pupils 
should use the newspapers, the "movies," literature and life — old 
family legends or everyday adventures. 

For character sketches, a useful class project is the compilation 
of a Book of Everyday Heroes, collected from the records of 
heroism in the newspapers and magazines, the Carnegie hero lists 
or the New York police department's roll of honor. In all types 
of compos-tion, the class should look out for good illustrative press 
clippings, good plots or effective story-telling, fine bits of description 
etc., as bases for oral or written work. 

A group of pupils may select parts from literature — Natty 
Bumpo, Mr Pickv/ick, Rip Van Winkle, Silas Marner, Portia, 
Mrs Malaprop and others, individually and in conference work up 
the speak'ng and acting necessary to present the characters, and 
then present, letting the class guess the characters. 

Debating should form a considerable segment of the oral work. 
In life the common form of debate is good-humored and courteous 
difference with friends and acquaintances ; in the classroom, ordi- 
narily, debate should be as spontaneous and informal as possible. 
Frequently the class should become a debating society, with pupil 
officers and well-defined rules of order. Let a pupil committee in 



22 

conference with the teacher submit topics. It is valuable to have 
a tournament each year between sections of the same class and 
between classes. The Central High School, Syracuse, has a plan 
which involves several hundred pupils in such a tourney each year, 
and develops admirably their ability to speak. 

THE RELATION OF ORAL WORK TO LITERATURE 

A major part of the study of literature involves oral work. Every 
masterpiece has in it passages that are models of English expression. 
Many such portions should be memorized and made the permanent 
possession of the pupil. An epigram, a happy phrase, a well-made 
anecdote, or a choice bit of poetry will be valuable as a part of his 
voice equipment. A brief list of suggested uses of speech in such a 
connection must include the following: 

1 Retelling of all or parts of stories. Skilful selection and con- 
densation should be required. 

2 Selection and discussion of large topics. For example, in the 
study of Ivanhoe, ideas of chivalry; conditions of feudalism; com- 
pared w^ith modern social and economic organization; relation of 
Normans and Saxons, its effect on character and language; the 
status of the Jew; the Crusades and their effects; the fool, compared 
with Touchstone et al. ; English outlawry ; methods of warfare then 
and now; ideals of manhood and womanhood portrayed etc. 

3 Pupils may be asked to prepare their own questions and to lead 
a discussion by the use of them. 

4 Varieties of dramatization: (a) impersonation of single char- 
acters; let Anna Howard Shaw or Mary Antin, impersonated by 
pupil, tell the story of her life,, or make a characteristic appeal; 
(b) staging by pupils, in groups, of selected scenes; (c) use of 
such scenes before other classes or school; (d) the class or school 
play or pageant, involving all grades and departments — a superb 
community project. 

5 Original character sketches: (a) character through soliloquy; 
Ivanhoe's thoughts upon arriving at his home; Horatius's thoughts 
at the bridge; Shylock's remarks after the court scene and the 
adverse judgment; Odysseus's thoughts in the cave of Polyphemus 
etc. 

6 Familiar literary characters projected into contemporary situa- 
tions : Sir Roger at the town library ; Achilles or Leatherstocking in 
the trenches; Mr Pickwick in the subway or at the ballgame etc. 

7 Travelogs. An oral travelog is a delightful device for vitalizing 
literature and the lives of authors. A ** team " sets out to present 



23 

to the class the resuUs of a literary pilgrimage. By means of guide 
books, maps, postal cards, pictures, lantern slides, chalk talks etc., 
the class moves through the Shakspere country, or visits the haunts 
of Cooper and Irving. The trip may be broken into a number of 
talks in sequence. In launching this work the following hint from 
the Illinois Bulletin may be helpful : 

The teacher should begin by giving such a composite description herself, 
with the help of picked students with whom she has worked it up in con- 
ference. Then she should assign subjects to the groups, with the aid of 
the class, outlining subjects on the board. During the week, she should 
meet the groups in conference, giving each twenty or thirty minutes. 

8 Lantern slides, pictures and music should be used freely. For 
example, pictures illustrating Shakspere's life, and phonograph 
records of the songs from the plays make a delightful program, 
with oral interpretations by a student committee. Helpful sources 
of such materials are as follows : 

The Visual Instruction Division, State Department of Education, 
Albany, N. Y., furnishes many valuable wall and hand pictures and 
lantern slides. (Express and breakage only fee.) 

The Newark PubLc Library, Newark, N. J., publishes a pamphlet 
entitled, "Aids in High School Teaching: Pictures and objects" 
($i). Address Elm Tree Press, 14 Mt Prospect pL, Newark, N. J., 
or H. W. Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y. 

A " Manual for the Use of Pictures in Teaching English, Latin, 
etc." by Cornelia Carhart Ward, is published by the University 
Prints, Newton, Mass. (25c) 

The Metropolitan Museum of Arts publishes a " Handbook for 
the Use of Schools " and many of the pictures listed are available 
in post card reproductions. 

The Perry Pictures, Perry Pictures Company, Maiden, Mass., the 
Thompson Company, Syracuse, N. Y., and George P. Brown and 
Co., 38 Lovett St., Beverly, Mass., offer very helpful selections. 

Music correlated with literature has been more or less sys- 
tematized by the leading phonograph companies. 

CORRECTING AND CRITICIZING ORAL WORK 
I Emphasize powers before attacking weaknesses. " What we 
want is not freedom from faults but abundance of powers." We 
must begin by praising what is good, though it be but a promise, 
and work with what we have rather than what we have not. Teach 
children that criticism is approving as well as destructive. Ordi- 
narily, use " comment " rather than " criticize." Avoid scattering 
comment ; direct criticism toward one thing at a time. 



24 

^ Anticipate errors by careful prevision. Hold conferences with 
pupils who are to speak. If this is impossible with all, select those 
whose need is greatest, or those whose promise is great, and arrange 
conferences to reach all, in rotation. Require outlines of assigned 
talks to be in teacher's hands at least a day before that set for the 
talk. This makes for careful preparation. 

3 Develop class criticism — the sense of free give and take in 
the spirit of well-bred, helpful English, wisely taught. The ability 
to detect errors instantly and to make corrections is developing with 
astonishing rapidity in the English classrooms. The teacher may 
appoint or the class elect a class critic, who lists all errors and reports 
at the close of the period, others supplementing with whatever 
escapes the notice of the critic; a number of critxs may be 
appointed, each to look out for a particular thing, one posture, 
another voice and enunciation, others preparation, interest etc. ; 
or each pupil may be assigned to watch particularly the work of 
another as a whole, criticizing as constructively as possible. 

4 Keep individual records of oral work. Teachers have found 
it worth while to keep a notebook with a separate page for the 
record of oral work of each pupil, jotting down from each recita- 
tion comments or criticisms likely to prove helpful. For example, 
a typical page reads thus: "John Ellery, i/i/iS, slouches, hands 
in pockets, looks out at window; goin', seein', thinkin'. 1/17/18, 
does not face class, substitutes n for ng, needs fuller preparation 
etc." In a very short time the teacher discovers the individual 
tendencies, through this record, and may set out intelligently to 
correct, strengthen and improve the pupil's work. 

Sometimes it is worth while to hand slips with these comments to 
pupils concerned, at the close of class periods, if time is lacking for 
class discussion of the points noted. These data should form a basis 
for conferences. 

Pupils may be encouraged to keep individual records, also, and 
to criticize and to rate performances. A score card adapted from 
the following may be placed in the hands of each pupil, asking for 
specific and detailed criticism: 

Name Posture Enunc. Interest Comments Grade 
I 
2 
3 etc.. etc. 

The student committee on criticism may determine the ranking 
of the speakers and announce results, or may read particularly 



25 

" pat " comments, or the teacher may use the cards as *' ammuni- 
tion " for class or conference criticism. 

The most useful individual records should be those kept by each 
pupil of his own work. In English notebooks, it is the practice of 
some teachers to have the first sheet a " never again page " together 
w.th a " things to work for " column. Here pupils keep whatever 
criticisms of their own work they deem worth while. At intervals 
it is well to have " confession-days " when each pupil reviews his 
own weaknesses and mistakes in class. 

5 See that criticism functions by means of individual conferences. 
By records carefully kept, it may be possible to group pupils guilty 
of common errors, and to confer with them jointly, drilling for the 
elimination of the weaknesses noted. Personal, individual confer- 
ences are, however, usually more illuminating and useful. 

N. B. One of the large uses of conferences is to come to know the pupil — 
whatever about him is of interest and value. For effective teaching 
the teacher should know the pupil as an individual. Some teachers keep a 
systematic record which includes such facts as the following: Name, age, 
address, school program, work outside of school, favorite subject, favorite 
reading (a) books, (b) periodicals, hobby, plans for future, three most 
memorable experiences, home facts. The pupils fill out such cards cheerfully, 
and the data so furnished are an invaluable asset to effective teaching in 
every branch of English work. 

" The conference time may be used in various ways. For two or 
three rounds it would be well to have the pupils rehearse their talks 
to the teacher in advance of the class appearance. In this way 
some pupds will be able to deliver their speeches for whom there 
would not be time in the class period. If the teacher finds a tendency 
among the pupils to memorize their talks, she should change her 
procedure, and use the conference time in talking over the ideas, 
structure, illustrations etc., which the pupils expect to use. She 
should maintain always an attitude not of positive direction but of 
friendly advice; her business is merely to help the pupil to work 
out his own ideas in his own way. After a while she will find that 
she can now and then pass over the conference with some of the 
best ones." (Bulletin of Illinois Association, Jan. i, 1913). 

In addition to this general purpose, the teacher should have, in 
each conference, a specific purpose dominating all others — so that 
the pupil, upon going away, is not confused with many things but 
absolutely clear as to one, in which he may improve his work. 
Some one has listed the motives to which a teacher in such confer- 
ences may appeal as three : pride in language, rare in secondary 



26 

school pupils; altruism, best utilized through team work or other 
representative function; and self-interest. 

6 Regularly before making up the monthly grade, the teacher 
should give examinations in oral English. This may be done in 
two ways. First. Establish cooperative relations with some teacher 
in another department (see Better Speech in School and Com- 
munity, below) and furnish her with forms to check up oral work 
in her classes. Some such form as this may be used : 

Name 

Estimate of oral work: Excellent ; Good ; Fair ; Poor . 

Suggestions for improvement : 

Second. Apply this same device in your own classes in English. 
Judge the oral work on the bas's of representative, prepared speak- 
ing, upon which the pupil knows he is to be judged. These two 
tests may be best used in combination. It is particularly desirable 
to apply the first one, that is the interdepartment test, and to empha- 
size to the pupil the fact that he may be judged and in part graded 
in oral English at any time and in any classroom. 

BETTER SPEECH IN SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY 
It is very evident, since correct speech is a matter of habit, that 
it is an affair of the entire school and the community. The greatest 
success in oral English will not be achieved until all teachers are 
compelled to do their share. Teachers of other subjects, as well 
as teachers of English, must help to make correct oral expression 
a habit. Pupils must not unlearn in the history class what they 
learn in the English class. The following suggestions may help 
in securing for the English teachers more adequate cooperation with 
other departments: 

I A school standard in oral (and written) work should be estab- 
hshed. The requirements should be printed and scrupulously 
enforced. Here is a sample from one high school : 

School Standard of Oral Work 

With rare exceptions, pupils should rise to recite. Topical recitations 
should predominate in all subjects, and for them the pupil should take the 
floor, facing the class squarely. He should not begin to speak until thus 
placed, and should not move to leave the floor until he has concluded his 
remarks. Recitations should be in the form of complete sentences. Erect 
posture and vigorous bearing are fundamental. 

Clean-cut enunciation is likewise basic. Slovenly or inarticulate recita- 
tions should not be accepted. Thev should be corrected, either at once, or in 



27 

the case of hypersensitives, after class, and, if persisted in, penalized 
heavily. Treat similarly recitations which fall below the standards of good 
English. 

Pupils who habitually use bad English should be reported to the English 
department on the blanks provided for that purpose. A list of errors 
noted should accompany the report. 

2 In the New England Leaflet for January 191 8, Edward 
Webster suggests another tried and successful device. He says : 

" The work is almost entirely oral, and concerns itself with those 
blunders in speech which are most common and persistent. Sen- 
tences containing troublesome constructions are repeated orally 
many times in school or at home, in order that the ear may welcome 
the new sound / wanted the president to he him, or what not. When 
we are reasonably sure that the pupils are no longer startled by the 
sound of the correct forms we deduce the rules with them. After 
at least ten demons of speech have been attacked in this manner 
we shut down the machinery of the school and give a rapid fire 
examination. The section-room teacher dictates as fast as he would 
ordinarily talk and the pupil writes only the critical part of the 
sentence, making his choice as to the correct form. Thus there is 
no time in which to reason out rules. Everyone must depend upon 
his ear, and this he can do if he has been faithful to the oral drill. 
Soon after the examination the resuUs are tabulated according to 
classes — freshman, sophomore etc. — and are read in the assembly 
hall. The students are as interested ... as in the report of a game. 
Five times during the year the whole school is examined in this 
fashion. At the end of the series, the class receiving the highest 
average is awarded a picture for its home room, and great is the 
enthusiasm in the assembly hall when the president receives the 
trophy on behalf of his victorious class. 

** Such a method of handling the common errors in every-day 
speech has two advantages. All the teachers of the school are 
brought into the examining work and are thus made aware of the 
mistakes that are undergoing the process of extermination and the 
entire student body is fighting the same solicisms at the same time. 
Teachers of shop work and mechanical subjects are continually 
asking for old subjects in order that they may keep up with the 
current drill work ; and the pupils who find the examinations diffi- 
cult are tutored from time to time by the honor students in English. 
Ever}^one gets into the campaign because everyone believes in the 
value of the work.'* 



28 

3 Through announcements at general teachers' meetings, or 
through bulletins at intervals, teachers in other departments may be 
asked to help to accomplish this result. 

Example: An effort is being made to stamp out slovenly enunciation and 
to secure clean-cut speech in the school. Will you please make a point 
of speaking of this to your classes, and list conspicuous cases of bad 
enunciation, with specific errors under the pupil's name. The chairman of 
the English department will call for your notes and helps. 

Such a bulletin is more effective over the signature of the prin- 
cipal. 

4 Through periodic bulletins, keep other teachers in touch with 
the tools the English department is trying to supply, in order that 
teachers of other subjects may know what to expect from their 
children, and may reenforce the English teaching if they care to 
or can, by using the tools indicated. 

Example: Pupils have been taught in the English classes not to begin 
sentences with " Why," " well-a," " and-a," " er " etc. They may be 
expected and required to begin statements clearly and directly. 

Example: During the past weeks pupils in the second year English 
classes have been giving special attention to the natural, logical arrangement 
of facts. They may be held to well-iordered recitations. 

5 As Doctor Briggs suggests in the English Journal (March 
1916), the Enghsh teachers should differentiate their demands upon 
the several subjects and teachers. The history and some science 
classes may cooperate with the English forces in handling larger 
units of recitation, in organization of materials, in demanding com- 
plete and definite statement etc. Exactness and logical arrange- 
ment may grow in connection with mathematics, and the foreign 
languages should contribute enlarged vocabularies, interest in words, 
synonyms, development etc. Lists may be secured from the Latin, 
German and French classes, of words with common English cog- 
nates or derivatives, and the English forms used in the English 
classes. Teachers in other departments who have a fine feeling for 
diction may develop a similar quality in their children, to the advan- 
tage of all concerned, and the English department should recognize 
and encourage these outposts of its ov/n vv'ork. 

6 In reciprocity, much of the work of other classes may be reen- 
forced in the English rooms. 

a Ask teachers of other subjects for supplementary readings in 
their subjects suitable for popular review as oral compositions. 

b Ask for Hsts of oral theme topics from each subject and year, 
preferably annotated to indicate the most strategic time of the year 
for a discussion in the English classes to prove of most value to the 
other subiect. 



29 

c Ask teachers of other subjects for good examples from their 
fields (textbook or laboratory materials) for the next few weeks* 
study of narration (history, ancient and modern languages) ; 
description (science, history and anc.ent and modern languages) ; 
exposition (history, sciences, mathematics, domestic arts, manual 
training) etc. In this way, good review of other subjects may be 
used as materials for constructive work in English. 

7 One New York State high school has found it worth while to 
print reminders emphasizing the desirability of good English and 
to post them conspicuously in every classroom of all departments. 
For example, one poster reads, in large letters : 

SAY IT IN GOOD ENGLISH 

Teachers of different grades and subjects should make it a busi- 
ness to pass on to colleagues dealing with the same pupils helpful 
information as to personal peculiarities, abilities or weaknesses, in 
order that there may be a continuity of campaign. A conference 
between first year high school teachers and eighth grade teachers, 
about a month after the opening of school in September, when the 
high school teachers have begun to know their pupils, yields results 
worth while in every phase of English work. 

Student speech and manners are improved by a free exchange of 
amenities between grades, throughout the school system. Classes in 
the high school may invite grade groups or single pupils to present 
a story, song or recitation, and reciprocate the courtesies from the 
best of their own work. 

BETTER SPEECH CAMPAIGNS 

1 Enlist the grades and the community — the county or counties 
if possible. A committee of business men and women, high school 
and grade teachers is a good working organization, but it is better 
to have a committee of the student body themselves to initiate and 
conduct the campaign, in conference with older folk. Such a com- 
mittee may be made up of representatives of the different classes 
and schools, literary societies and other contributory organizations. 

2 Launch and maintain a vigorous, varied and challenging pub- 
licity campaign. 

a Post upon bulletins, in the school paper, on the blackboards 
or upon special cards such quotations as these : 
" Mend your speech a little 
Lest it mar your fortuned." — Shakspere 



30 

" I advocate, in its full intent and for every reason of humanity, of pat- 
riotism, of religion, a more thorough culture of speaking." — Beecher 

" Ninety-nine men in every hundred in the crowded professions will prob- 
ably never rise above mediocrity because the training of the voice is entirely 
neglected and considered of no importance." — Gladstone 

b Let the student committee or council accumulate through the 
year the vulgarities, slang, rapid and worn-out expressions, tasteless 
examples or inaccuracies of enunciation, pronunciation and gram- 
mar noted in common usage, and post them, two at a time, to be 
eliminated from, the speech of the school, posting in a parallel 
column two expressions to be added to the common vocabulary and 
use. Begin with long blank cards and, as expressions are added, 
allow the old expressions to stand as reminders, so that the list 
grows longer week by week. These words should be emphasized 
in all English classes on the same days. 

c Use cartoons and posters, suggested and drawn by pupils, to 
emphasize the campaign. Examples in Alabama were delineations 
of the dictionary pursuing the villain "Ain't " out of the gates of 
" Good English Town." Limericks and jingles may be evolved. 

d Emphasize the purposes and details of the better speech cam- 
paign by student announcement in assemblies, perhaps by sending 
pupils to explain the movement to the grades and to women's clubs 
and church organizations whose cooperation and sympathy may be 
enlisted. 

e Secure all the newspaper interest and space possible in aid of 
the campaign. Link up the movement in the schools as far as 
possible with the life of the community. 

/ Establish an oral English exhibit or demonstration program, 
calculated to show to the friends, parents and guests of school the 
fruits of a good year of work with the spoken word. Here assemble 
the posters, word lists, cartoons, news clippings and other publicity 
materials called out by the campaign, including the printed cards, 
" Say It In Better English " and the quotations from distinguished 
men testifying to the importance of mastery of oral English. Lay 
upon tables or post where they may be reached, written work organ- 
ized and vitalized and planned by the oral approach. Present a 
program made up of entertaining, humorous and inspiring oral work 
such as has been developed in the classes : recitation of memorized 
poetry, a dramatized application for a position, including the dicta- 
tion of the letter of application, the employer's reply and the 
personal application ; a play created by the pupils on the basis of 
an original plot or as a dramatization of scenes studied in litera- 



31 

ture; a discussion of some unit of literature studied, illustrated 
by lantern or reflectoscope pictures and by correlated music. A 
short debate or a travelog into literary lands may be substituted 
for this. 

g Send pupils to visit the women's clubs, commercial club, civic 
clubs and similar organizations and invite them to cooperate with the 
schools and to be the guests of the schools in such programs as 
that indicated above. 

h Invite capable and leading men and women of the community 
to speak to the school on such topics as the following : '* The busi- 
ness man's speech: relative amount of speaking and writing" (or 
English in the professions) ; " The training of a telephone operator, 
and hints of general value therein " (by a telephone official) ; " Eng- 
lish, voices and manners in a great store." 

CONCLUSION 
The emphasis that is being put today on oral expression is one 
The emphasis that is being put today on oral expression is one 
of the most potential and vitalizing influences at work in the field 
of English. Schools are just beginning to grapple with the problem 
of correcting the American speech. We, as teachers, must realize 
that we are only on the threshold of the development of a program 
that may make possible in the lives of the people " an accurate, 
forceful, living speech which shall be adequate for ordinary inter- 
course and capable of expressing the thoughts and emotions of 
men and women in other relations of life." 

By our early experiences it is clear that there ought to grow up 
by reason of this oral emphasis a thougMful and an articulate 
generation. The idealism of war has stimulated the ambition of 
the Nation. To capitalize this ambition is the chief duty educa- 
tion has at this time, and the movement for a better speech is one 
of the best opportunities education has to realize that duty. It 
has become the task of the English teacher to provide motives for 
the normal exercise of the impulse to narrate, to picture, to expound, 
or to argue and ** to free the channels of expression " by molding 
habits of thinking and by training the speech organs. This is a 
task worthy the age in which we are living. It is a privilege not to 
be regarded carelessly for each of us to have a part in this great 
movement; it should be a joy as well. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

lllilllillililllllllll' 
021 775 359 4 ^ 

BRIEF LIST OF HELPFUL BOOKS 
New York State Department of Education. English Syllabus for 

Elementary Schools 

English Syllabus for Secondary Schools 

Guide to American Speech Week. National Council of Teachers 

of English, 68th st. & Stewart av., Chicago, 111. 25c 
Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. Gov't Printing 

Office, Washington, D. C. 20c 
New York City Board of Education. Oral English Syllabus. 

Bulletin of Teaching English to Foreigners. 
Lewis, Calvin L. American Speech (for physiology of voice). 

Scott, Foresman and Co. 
Ripman, Walter. Sounds of American Speech and Specimens. 

Revised ed. 1914 
Corson, Hiram. The Voice and Spiritual Education. Macmillan 
Files of the English Journal, 68th st. & Stewart av., Chicago, 111., of 

the Leaflet of the New England Association of Teachers of 

English, A. B. De Mille, Milton, Mass., or of the Illinois Leaflet, 

H. G. Paul, Urbana, 111. 
Practically any modern textbook on composition 



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